Physiology and Sports

Physiology and sports

Sports physiology is the study of the lengthy-and brief-time period effects of training and conditions on athletes. This specialised  field of study is going hand in hand with human anatomy. Anatomy is all about structure, where physiology is about function.

Physiological factors determining strength

1. The size of the muscle-The strength of the muscle depends on the size of the muscle.It is well-known fact that  bigger muscles produce more force. The force produced by the same size of muscle in men and women is approximately same  but men are found to be stronger because they have larger muscles and bigger muscles in comparison to females. The size of muscles can be changed with the help of strength training such as weight lifting. So, strength is determined by the size of the muscle.


2. Body weight- There is a positive relationship between body weight and  strength. Heavier the weightlifter , heavier it will lift the weight.


3. Muscle composition-Muscle composes of two types of muscles which are fast twitch fibres(white fibres) and slow twitch fibres (red fibres).Fast twitch fibres are capable of contracting  faster and therefore they can produce more force.Whereas slow twitch fibres are capable of contracting slowly but they can hold the contraction for a long time. SO strength also depends on the composition of muscle.The composition of muscles cannot be changed by training and are genetically determined.


4. The intensity of nerve impulse- Our muscles comprises of many motor units (units responsible for contraction of muscles) .When the signal is released from the central nervous system , motor units start to work and muscle begin to contract. The contraction of muscles depends on the intensity of nerve impulse received from the central nervous system.So the intensity of nerve impulse also determines the amount strength.

Physiological factors determining speed

Speed is one of the important components of physical fitness which is determined by following factors:

1. The mobility of nervous system- Mobility of nervous system means excitation and relaxation of motor units which causes contraction and relaxation in muscles.The mobility of nervous system takes place in events such as sprinting , running etc. (See this link know the difference between sprinting and running). After few seconds the excitation spreads to nearby centres causing the whole body to be stressed. This leads to the reduction of speed of the player. The mobility of nervous system can be increased up to a certain extent by training.
2. Muscle composition-Muscles compose of  two types of fibres fast twitch fibres and slow twitch fibres (Learn more about fibres here). Fast twitch fibres are able to contract faster and slow twitch fibres contract slowly. fast twitch fibres are capable of contracting faster whereas slow twitch fibres are capable of contacting slowly . So the type of muscle composition also determines speed. Muscle composition cannot be changed , they are determined genetically.
3. Explosive strength-  Explosive strength is vital for every quick and explosive movement. Such movements include a quick punch in boxing,weight lifting, sprinting etc.  Explosive strength depends on muscle composition,muscle size, metabolic process and muscle coordination. All factors that determine explosive strength can be improved by training except muscle composition (it is determined genetically and cannot be modified). 
4. Flexiblity- It is the ability of  the body to bend without breaking any joint, ligament or tendons. There is a negative relationship between elasticity(flexibility) and inelasticity (non- flexible).Flexibility allows maximum range of movement without internal resistance.
5. Bio-chemical reserves and metabolic power-  For muscles to work continuously with high speed , it requires more energy so that the demand of energy keeps on fulfilling until the player stops. For this purpose  adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) stores in the muscles should be enough. In case energy gets depleted, then the speed of contraction of muscles decreases which also leads to the reduction of speed.The amount of ATP, CP can be increased by training. 

Physiological factors determining endurance

Endurance- Endurance is the ability of the person to do sports movement with the desired quality and speed under the condition o fatigue.It involves a large number of muscles.In all sports , directly or indirectly endurance is used.It is usually measured by a number of repetitions.

• Aerobic capacity - To maintain momentum , muscles need energy which can be supplied in the presence of oxygen.Therefore , the ability of the organisms to maintain the adequate supply of oxygen to the working muscles for energy liberation is important for endurance performance.The aerobic capacity depends on following factors: 

1. Oxygen Intake- It refers to intake of oxygen from the oxygen from the atmosphere.  It further depends on lung size, active alveoli, the strength of respiratory muscles, the size of chest cavity etc.
2. Oxygen transport- After intake of oxygen , another task is to transport the oxygen to various parts of the body . It depends on the amount of oxygen absorbed from lungs and ability of the circulatory system to carry it quickly to working muscles. It also depends on haemoglobin count in blood, the more the count, the more the oxygen will be carried and vice versa. The general concentration of haemoglobin in the body of the sportsperson is 14%-15%.The concentration of haemoglobin cannot be increased by training.The transportation of oxygenated blood depends on the capacity of the heart, which can be increased by  training.
3. Oxygen uptake-The amount of oxygen which can be absorbed and consumed by working muscles from the blood is  called  is called oxygen uptake. It depends on the rate of diffusion which further depends on the speed of blood flow, temperature and pressure of oxygen in the blood. The speed and amount of oxygen consumption also depend on the number , size and capacity of mitochondria and these factors can be improved through training.
4. Energy reserves- Aerobic capacity further depends on energy reserves for getting the energy to muscles.Therefore ,the aerobic capacity depends on upon the muscle glycogen and sugar level in the blood. If the glycogen falls below the certain level , then fatigue occurs. For long duration activities , the muscle glycogen and liver glycogen reserves are important. In extraordinary long duration activities, fats can also be used as energy fuel. It exists in such amount that it cannot be exhausted easily. Hence, it is not a limiting factor for endurance performance.

• Lactic Acid tolerance- When oxygen cannot be used as a source of energy then body uses glucose to get energy through a process called glycolysis. When the body has plenty of oxygen, pyruvate is shuttled to the aerobic pathway to be further broken down for more energy. But when oxygen is limited, the body temporarily converts pyruvate into a substance called lactate, which allows glucose breakdown--and thus energy production--to continue.The ability to tolerate a higher concentration of lactic acid is a significant factor in determining anaerobic capacity. The lactic acid tolerance is important for activities that last for  about 40 seconds or more . The lactic acid tolerance capacity can be improved through  training. So, it can help in improving performance.
• Movement economy- Position of the head, torso, shoulders, arms , hips, legs, ankles should be in a proper position to reduce the energy consumption. This is known as movement economy. It helps the player to do activity for a long time with limited energy. Proper position of the head, torso, shoulders. arms, hips, legs, ankles can be seen here.
• Muscle composition- Muscles compose of  two types of fibres fast twitch fibres and slow twitch fibres . Fast twitch fibres are able to contract faster and slow twitch fibres contract slowly.Slow twitch fibres are best used for aerobic activities or endurance activities. They produce the small level of force for long periods of time and that is why they are better suited for endurance activities. In fact, it is found that elite marathoners have 90% slow twitch fibres in muscles of the leg. So the type of muscle composition also determines endurance. Muscle composition cannot be changed , they are determined genetically.

Physiological factors determining flexibility

The ability to bend easily without breaking is known as flexibility.Flexibility depends on various factors. Some of the factors can be modified by training but some of them are genetically decided.Factors which determine flexibility are :

1. Type of joint- Human body has many types of joints. Some of them favour for the small range of movement whereas some favour high range of movements.For example , ball and socket joint has more range of movement than the knee joint.
2. Age and Gender-With the increase in age, flexibility decreases. The reason for the decrease in flexibility is, many body parts start to contract which does not allow flexibility. However, the body can be made flexible again with the help of  training. Gender also determine flexibility. Women are found to be more flexible than men.
3. The stretchability of muscles- The length and stretchability of muscle also determine the flexibility of player. For joints to do some movement,  muscles require doing some contraction. If muscles are not doing some stretching for a long period of time, their size decreases which eventually affect stretchability. The stretchability of muscles can be modified by training .
4. Body temperature- Body temperature also determines the flexibility of player. A hot bath improves flexibility whereas a cold bath decreases flexibility.
5. Past injury- After an injury , injured part grows thick .The tissues which cause thickening are known as fibrous tissues. Fibrous tissues are less elastic and can lead to limb shortening and decrease flexibility.

Effects of exercise on Cardio-Vascular system

Organs (heart,lungs,kidneys and brain) ,arteries, veins and capillaries which transport nutrients and oxygen to the various body of parts forms cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system is responsible for transporting oxygenated blood to parts and transporting deoxygenated blood to lungs back. Effects of exercise on cardiovascular system are:

1. The increase in the size of heart- After performing an exercise for a long time the strength and size of heart increases. In fact left ventricle adapts the most. Heart walls grow thick and strong.
2. The decrease in resting rate- regular exercise for a long period of time decrease the resting rate of the heart. It is observed that after a period of 10-week training , resting rate reduces from 72 beats per minute to 60 beats per minute. After exercise efficiency of the heart increases.While at rest it can pump more blood in fewer beats.
3. The amount of blood pumped increases-  Stroke volume  (amount of blood pumped with the single heartbeat) increases. Normal stroke volume of males is found to be less than that of athletes or players.
4. The increase in cardiac output at rest- The amount of blood pumped in one minute.Regular exercise is helpful in increasing cardiac output of the heart. The players who regularly exercise are found to have the cardiac output of 25-35 litres per minute whereas the cardiac output of untrained individuals is 14-20 litres per minute. 
5. Better supply of blood- To meet energy requirement of muscles, capillaries  increases, widens so that blood can provide energy to muscles properly.Because of this , blood supply becomes more efficient and effective,
6. Decreased blood pressure- After doing regular exercise for a period of time, blood pressure decreases. Hence reducing the chances of heart attack.
7. The increase in blood volume- After exercising for a period of time , blood volume increases. Blood composes of plasma,platelets, white blood cells and red blood cells. After doing exercise plasma(contains urea, water, minerals, glucose,patients,fats etc) and red blood cells (contains haemoglobin which help in transporting oxygen) increase to meet the increasing demand of energy and nutrients of muscles.
8. Reduced heart diseases- Regular exercise develops capillaries, the heart becomes strong, blood flow in arteries,veins increases. High blood flow in arteries and veins prevent stress hormones to accumulate. This also prevents plaque ( a substance that  builds up and harden arteries walls) to accumulate that can lead to coronary heart diseases.Hence reducing the risk of heart disease.

Effects of exercise on respiratory system

1. Increase in tidal air capacity- Tidal air capacity is the amount of oxygen flows in and out of the lungs in each respiratory movement. It has been observed that tidal air capacity can be increased after doing regular exercise.
2. Decrease in rate or frequency of respiration- When a normal person starts exercising then his rate of respiration but as he continues to do exercise for a long period of time, his rate of respiration decreases.
3. Strengthens muscles- Regular exercises helps to the over functioning of lung's muscles of the diaphragm which makes them flexible and strengthens them.
4. Second wind is rarely felt- Second wind is a condition in running or jogging when a person is too out of breath. Initially it is a crucial stage but afterwards, the respiratory system adapts automatically and an athlete does not feel it .
5. Activates alveoli- Due to bad lifestyle, our alveoli become inactive because of the lesser requirement of oxygen but when a person starts doing exercise , his lungs work hard to meet the oxygen requirements of the body and ultimately activates alveoli.
6. Increases residual air volume- Residual air volume is the amount of air left in the lungs after the exhalation. When a person starts to do exercise , his residual air volume increases.
7. The increase in the size of lungs and chest- When someone does some exercises , his body requires more amount of oxygen than at normal (rest) state. Due to which lungs inhale more oxygen and heart pumps more blood to meet the demand. 
8. Prevent diseases- When we don't do  any exercise , our lungs reduce the efforts to prevent energy loss. This causes the waste products to stick inside the lungs.To get it clean regularly , we should do exercise regularly.
9. Increase in vital air capacity- It is the amount of oxygen inhaled and exhaled with maximum effort. In a normal human being it varies from 350cc to 4500cc but in athletes it increases to 5500cc.

Effects of exercise on the circulatory system

Components of the circulatory system include Heart, Lungs and Arteries, Viens. The role of heart is to pump blood so that oxygenated blood and deoxygenate blood can be delivered to their respective organs on time ( oxygenated blood will be pumped to organs from lungs and deoxygenated blood will be pumped back to lungs ). The tubes or vessels which transfer blood are called as arteries and veins. The role of lungs is to provide oxygen to the deoxygenated blood so that it can be sent back to muscles.Thus effects of exercise in lungs, heart and arteries,veins will be counter under the topic of effects of exercise on the circulatory system.

1. Activates alveoli- Due to bad lifestyle, our alveoli become inactive because of the lesser requirement of oxygen but when a person starts doing exercise , his lungs work hard to meet the oxygen requirements of the body and ultimately activates alveoli.
2. Increase in tidal air capacity- Tidal air capacity is the amount of oxygen flows in and out of the lungs in each respiratory movement. It has been observed that tidal air capacity can be increased after doing regular exercise.
3. Decrease in rate or frequency of respiration- When a normal person starts exercising then his rate of respiration but as he continues to do exercise for a long period of time, his rate of respiration decreases.
4. Strengthens muscles- Regular exercises helps to the over functioning of lung's muscles of the diaphragm which makes them flexible and strengthens them.
5. The increase in the size of heart- After performing an exercise for a long time the strength and size of heart increases. In fact left ventricle adapts the most. Heart walls grow thick and strong.
6. The decrease in resting rate- regular exercise for a long period of time decrease the resting rate of the heart. It is observed that after a period of 10-week training , resting rate reduces from 72 beats per minute to 60 beats per minute. After exercise efficiency of the heart increases.While at rest it can pump more blood in fewer beats.
7. The amount of blood pumped increases-  Stroke volume  (amount of blood pumped with the single heartbeat) increases. Normal stroke volume of males is found to be less than that of athletes or players.
8. The increase in a number of capillaries- Number of capillaries increase and become more and more active to provide oxygenated blood to all muscles. 

Ageing

Ageing is a process which is characterised by degeneration of organs  and various systems respectively. Ageing depends on genetics, diet, environmental conditions, pollution, radiation. This process continues to grow and cannot be stopped.

Changes in body due to Ageing

1. Change in muscle and strength- Size of muscle decreases and overall body fat increases. Due to above two changes , muscle strength also decreases.
2. Metabolism and body composition- Due to increasing age, body requires less energy and metabolism slows down. Consequently, there is an increase in body fat and lean body weight (tendons,ligaments,tissue,tendons,muscle and water) decrease.
3. Bone Density- It results in the decrease in bone density. This happens due to the shortage of minerals in the body. The bones become denser or more prone to injuries. The decrease in bone density begins in the early forties.
4. Changes in respiratory system- The elasticity of lung muscles decreases and it leads to decrease in efficiency of lungs as well. Oxygen uptake  and oxygen exchange decrease.Ability to breath deeply decreases due to a reduction in elasticity of muscles. Pulmonary oxygen is reduced which leads to reduced endurance with shortness of breath and fatigue. it can be said that tidal volume, vital capacity, lung capacity are decreased, whereas residual volume is increased.
5. Changes in cardiovascular system -Cardiovascular system composes of lungs, heart and blood vessels. With the advancing age, there is a progressive reduction in the elasticity of cardiac muscle strength. Stroke volume, cardiac output and blood flow are decreased with age. Blood vessels( arteries and veins) also lose their elasticity.There is less nourishment of cells in the body. Heart valves become rigid.
6. Changes in the nervous system- Researchers and observations show that there is a decrease in reaction time and movement time with the increase in age.The weight of brain, growth of nerve endings and network of the nervous system decreases . It also makes it difficult for a person to recall memories.
7. Changes in Digestive system or Gastrointestinal system- There is a decrease in the production rate of HCl (Hydrochloric Acid), digestive  enzymes and saliva. This results in the decrease in digestion and decrease in appetite. The efficiency of lungs decreases along with repairing damaged liver cells.
8. Changes in urinary system or excretory system- Excretory system consist of kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra. Due to ageing , the mass of kidneys decreases , the capacity of bladder decrease. The process of filtration of blood decrease. There is an increase in residual urine.
9. Change in flexibility- Due to ageing , spinal cord decrease in length which also leads to the reduction in flexibility. There is also increase in reduction in flexiblity of tendons and ligaments.

Role of regular exercises on Ageing

1. Reduce the loss of muscle mass- Muscle mass decreases with advancing age.Ageing has a negative impact on metabolism.Regular exercise decreases the loss of lean body mass and loss in metabolism rate. Regular exercise also reduces the accumulation of fats.
2. Maintaining bone density- Due to advancing age, digestive device and kidneys lessen their tactics which cause them to incomplete extraction of nutrients and minerals (vitamin d helps our body to soak up calcium)  from meals which cause the reduction in bone density. doing physical activities often continues the digestive machine and excretory system wholesome which in turn hold bones sturdy.
3. Diseases- Sporting activities helps us to shield towards numerous illnesses including diabetes,weight problems, hypertension and so forth.
4. Improves muscle strength- Exercises increase the size of muscle which ultimately increases muscle strength.
5. Enhances the capacity of lungs- Regular exercise enhances the capacity of lungs. It reduces the loss of elasticity of the lungs and chest wall. It plays a key role in keeping the chest strong. Regular exercise increases oxygen uptake and oxygen exchange.
6. Improves flexiblity-Regular exercises improves the elasticity of tendons,ligaments, and joint capsules.Exercise decrease the stiffness of joints. In this way there is increase in  flexiblity.
7. Reduces stress and tension- Regular exercise has a unique capacity to exhilarate and relax to depression and reduce stress and tension. In fact, regular exercise reduces levels of body's stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol Regular exercise also stimulates the production of endorphins, the body's natural painkillers and mood elevators. Such benefits of exercise help in delaying the ageing process. 

 It can be concluded that regular exercise can play a very effective role on ageing process because it has an ample benefits which usually help in delaying the ageing process. It is a well established fact that no one can stop the clock of ageing as it is inevitable but physical exercise can slow its tick.

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Psychology and Sports

Psychology- The scientific study of human brain and its various functions is known as Psychology.

Psychology and sports are distributed into stress, anxiety, personality, motivation, self-esteem and their various sub-topics.

Stress

The pressure or tension arises mentally due to various kinds of circumstances.

Stressors

Any chemical agent, biological agent, environment condition, external stimulus or an event that causes stress to an individual.Effect of stress depends on the intensity of stressor.

If the intensity of stressor is severe , then it would lead to serious health problems and even death too.Common examples of serious health problems include a headache, allergies, insomnia, backache, cold, fatigue, hypertension, asthma, diabetes, heart ailments and cancer etc. In the situation of stress, body make various changes. Those changes include releasing hormones which are known as adrenaline and cortisone. These hormones increase blood pressure and prepare the body for fight response. Once the person faces stress situation then there are two options one is that hormones are used up completely and another is that the hormones are still mixed in blood. In case hormones are used by the body then the body goes to normal as before stress. When the hormones are left unused in the blood then the body starts giving stress related physical symptoms such as tense muscles, anxiety, dizziness and fast heartbeat. Effects of stress are not always negative , they are positive also . Unachievable tasks can be easily achieved by positive stress.

Managing Stress

1. Participation in physical activities- Participation in physical activities help to release happiness hormones in the body such as  cortisols, endorphins etc. After releasing of hormones, hormones interact with receptors in the brain and triggers positive feelings which ultimately reduces depression.


2. Developing hobbies- Developing hobbies such as acting , dance, cooking , calligraphy, embroidery , stand-up comedy etc helps individual to feel confident about himself which releases hormones like cortisols, endorphins etc and ends up reducing depression.


3. Avoiding company of stressed person- Company of the individual also play an important role in reducing or transferring depression.  Various research shows that the people who are surrounded by  people with negative thoughts have more potential to depress rather than people living with the people with the positive attitude.


4. Councilling or psychotherapy- Psychotherapy is the therapy of treating mental health conditions. It includes analysing the problem which triggers the stress and working upon it for the better condition  of someone.


5. Changing working environment- Working environment includes surrounding condition within which employee or person works.If the working environment is favourable to person, then he will enjoy the work hence reducing the effect of depression.


6. Developing positive mindset- A negative mindset is found to have more potential for stress rather than one with the positive mindset.

Anxiety

Anxiety is the term used for many disorders that make someone nervous, worry, fear, alarm, unease etc. People often face anxiety while doing some activities such as  tests,interview, drama etc. Anxiety becomes a problem when it disturbs regular functions of life such as sleep, hunger etc.

Managing Anxiety

1. Meditation


2. Confidence


3. Sleep


4. Addictions


5. Mentality


6. Physical Workout


7. Identifying Source

Personality 

Personality is the set of various characteristics like physical, mental,intellectual, social, emotional, etc. These exhibit the inner and outer capabilities of a person.

Dimensions of personality

It comprises of 4 dimensions which are physical, mental, social and emotional.

1. physical- This dimension comprises of a good physique, proper body weight, proper posture. A good physical outlook creates a positive impression of a person on others.For a person to possess good physique he should take  balanced diet, do exercises regularly .


2. mental- This dimension of personality comprises of mental and intellectual strength and abilities. This enables a person to behave and act properly in surroundings and helps him to gather knowledge.


3. social- It composes of social characteristics like behavioural patterns, customs, rituals, traditions, norms, standards etc. It enables a person to be socially and socialising. Social skills develop in surroundings where a person lives.


4. emotional- It comprises of proper control over emotions like hate, anger, fear, love etc. If emotions are left uncontrolled then they often create a problem for us.

Role of sports in developing personality

Sports help to develop a personality by developing physical, mental, social and emotional condition  separately.

Physical- Sports compose of a wide range of physical activities which help to develop person's physical fitness up to a great extent. Sports are the great source of reducing obesity.

Mental-Some games like basketball, hockey, football, cricket enables players to make strategies to win. Making strategies, again and again, develops creative thinking, sharpens the mind, develop critical thinking. These changes help to develop individual's mental status.

Social-  Being a social activity sports include in games which further include making teams and groups to play and win. It teaches individuals to deal with people, manners, etiquette etc.

Emotional- Emotions include hate, anger, fear etc. The outburst of such emotions is not considered a good sign of good personality. Games include winning and losing  which make both teams adaptable to emotional outburst.

Motivation

Motivation is one of the main psychological factors which affects the performance. Motivation means to be inspired to do something. The definition of motivation is to give reason, enthusiasm or interest that cause a specific action or certain behaviour. Motivation is present in every function of life. Simple acts such as eating, drinking are motivated by hunger and thirst respectively.The following definitions may clarify the meaning of motivation more explicitly.

"Any condition that may energise and direct our actions" is called motivation - Robert Crooks in Crooks and Stein

"The drive to strive is" called motivation - Sage

 Types of motivation

There are 2 types of motivation:

1. Intrinsic motivation- Kind of motivation rising from inside of an individual.When individuals use their good or bad experiences , a dream to achieve something is known as intrinsic motivation.


2. Extrinsic motivation-Kind of motivation whose source is external . For example punishment, reward etc.

Self-Motivation

By the way, there are uncountable ways to motivate but here are few tips that will blow your mind:

• Opposite sex- Presence of opposite always help individual to perform well and impress opposite sex.


• Spectators- Mood of spectators or audience matters a lot but not the most. If spectators have faith in a player and keep on cheering him/her then it will make a player perform well and score well. Same goes opposite when spectators have no faith in the player.


• Verbal comments- Verbal comments of various people around player influence the mood of the player. If comments are positive then it will make player confident otherwise it will make player fell bad about his performance.


• Type of environment-Environment plays a good role in motivating someone. if the environment is positive , then it will motivate the person is and same goes opposite in presence of the negative environment


• Reward- Sometimes the reward being  rewarded meets the need or requirement of the player.It keeps on motivating him to perform well .

Self-Esteem

Self-Esteem refers to the self-confidence or self-dignity that a person maintain.Self-Esteem is linked to body image.Body image is how we feel and think our body.If we feel positive then self-esteem will also be high else if we feel negative about  body image then we will feel low .In short, there is a positive relationship between body image and self-esteem.

Body Image

As discussed in last passage body image is how we feel and think our body. In other words, body image is both the mental picture that you have of your body and how you look in the mirror. Body image involves the picture of your body that ou have in your mind, Which may or may not match your body's actual shape, size, height, weight etc.

Types of body image:

Body image can be classified into two types i.e. positive body image and negative body image.

Positive body image- Body image in which person feels positive about his body is known as positive body image.People who feel good about their body , have a positive or healthy body image. Body image is not about physical looks about of anyone, it's all about how a person see his body .For having a healthy body image also means that you see yourself as you really are.You feel comfortable and confident in terms of your body image.

Negative body image

Negative body image is also called unhealthy body image.Negative body image means being unhappy with the way you look. It is usually linked with the desire to change the body shape,size,height or weight etc. This type of body image develops when an individual feels that his body's features do not match with social or media ideals.These individuals are usually dissatisfied with their body image.

Factors influencing self-esteem and body image

There are various factors influencing body image and self-esteem. Some of them are listed below:

1. Puberty and development-  Development takes place differentially.During puberty phase, body  make various changes which help individuals to survive. Changes such as the growth of pubic hair, development of breast, increase in height, menstruation etc. These changes can be seen directly and can make people feel bad about their body when they compare themselves to others.


2. Media images- At this age, teenager tends to compare themselves with celebrities.  This often makes them feel bad about themselves and make  negative body image.


3. Society- Society plays a great role in determining body image of an individual.If the society around teenagers is positive then teenager will also make a positive body image . If society criticises teenagers about their body looks, then teenagers will make a negative body image .


4. Life experience- As people grow older they face many events during their lifetime some are positive whereas some are negative .uch experiences may influence body image of people.

Improving body image and self-esteem

If you lay stress on the following points you are likely to improve your body image and self-esteem.

1. Attitude towards yourself- Try to analyse your body image and try to possess positive body image rather than negative body image.


2. Positive qualities- If you are having low self-esteem and unhealthy body image you can turn yourself toward healthy body image by thinking about skills that you are good at. For this, you must remind yourself about your positive skills .


3. Plastic surgery- It is optional to get a plastic surgery done . It will help you to gather confidence and develop a healthy body image.


4. Changing habits- A person should focus on developing habits such as exercising, reading books etc. Such practice will definitely help in improving body image and self-esteem.

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Biomechanics and Sports

Biomechanics

Biomechanics is made from two words i.e." Bio" ( meaning: a living body) and "Mechanics"  (Meaning:Field of physics which deal in the study of bodies in motion).   Application of the principle of mechanics in physical education and sports is called biomechanics.

Projectile and Trajectory/Parabola

A projectile is anybody thrown upwards with an acute angle is known as the projectile .For example, A basketball is thrown towards the basket ,ball thrown by fielder towards baller, throwing a hammer, discuss throw etc. In all these cases objects are considered as the projectile. Trajectory is the path covered by the projectile until it stops.let's understand it better with an image.

Factors Affecting Projectile Trajectory (Object's path)

There are various reasons of the path of the projectile.Different bodies use different paths due to the following reasons:

1. The angle of Projection


2. Height of Release


3. Initial Velocity (or speed)


4. Gravity (or the weight of the projectile)


5. Air Resistance


6. Spin

The angle of projection- The angle of projection affects the distance covered by the projectile. If the angle would be too less or too high then distance covered will be less, so to cover the proper distance the angle of 45°.is recommended.

The height of Release- Height of release refers to the height to which the projectile is released.It is observed that as the height of the release of projectile increases, the distance also increases.

Initial Velocity- The speed at which the projectile is thrown in the air is called as initial velocity.The more the initial velocity will be , the more will be distance covered by the object and vice versa.

Gravity- Gravity is an invisible force that pulls everything towards earth.The more the weight of the projectile , the more the weight the more the gravity acting upon it.

Air Resistance- When any object passes through air, it faces some resistance by air around it.This resists the movement of the projectile through the air.It depends on various determinants such as the surface of the object, design (or shape) of the object, the mass  of projectile and speed of the projectile.

• The surface of the object- If the surface is smooth , then air resistance would be less and if it's rough then resistance would be more.


• Design- Design refers to the shape of the object. If the shape is piercing (as that of an aeroplane)  then the air resistance will be less and if it is not piercing but is a made to capture more and more air (like a parachute and a skydiver making an arch position).


• Mass of the object- Mass is the matter possessed by the body.If the mass of projectile would be small then resistance will be high and vice versa . For example feather and a stone.


• The speed of the projectile- The more the speed the farther will projectile go.For eg a stone thrown and a bullet fired from a gun.

Spin- The amount and direction of spin acting on a projectile affect the distance travelled by the projectile. Topspin (what is topspin) reduces the distance whereas backspin (what is backspin) increases it.

Angular and Linear movement

Angular movement is produced with angle whereas linear movements are movements in a single direction.
Most human actions are the complex combination of basic forms of motions such as linear motion, angular motion, and general motion.



Linear Motions

Motion along a straight line curve is called linear motion .It can be in straight line or in curved lines.The direction of a moving object will not be changed .There are two types of motions: Rectilinear motion and curvilinear motion.

Rectilinear motion- The movement along the straight line curve is known as rectilinear motion.For example bowling ball etc

Rectilinear motion

Curvilinear Motion- The movement along the curved path is known as curvilinear motion.

Curvilinear Motion

Angular Motion

Motion possessed by anybody moving around an axis is known as angular motion.It is further classified into 2 types i.e. Internal axis and External axis.

Internal Axis- If the axis of the rotating body  lies inside the human body then it is considered as an internal axis.Such as games such as hammer throw etc.

External Axis- If the axis of the rotating body lies outside the human body then it is termed as an external axis. For example giant wheel, moving ceiling fan etc.

Work, Power and Energy

Work-When there is displacement of the body in the direction of force applied then it is said that the work is done.where w=work,f=force applied,and s=displacement.Components of work done are the force applied on a body and the displacement covered by the body after applying force.

Power - Power can be defined as the rate of doing work or rate of consuming the energy.

P=W/T

Where P=power, Work= work, T= Time

Energy-Energy can be defined as an ability of an individual to do work.It is categorised into two types: Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy.

Kinetic Energy-Energy possessed by a moving body is know as kinetic energy. there is the positive relationship between the movement of the body and kinetic energy.The more the movement the more will be kinetic energy and vice versa.

Potential Energy- Energy possessed by a body at some height is known as potential energy.its main component is the height and weight of the body.

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Training in sports

Intro

This chapter focuses on identifying,understanding and developing various types of abilities of the body.It covers a great weight age in the examination.

Training

It is the preparation of the athlete in such a way that he can perform as per the requirements in the competitions.The performance of an athlete in such competitions  depends widely on abilities such as speed,endurance,strength etc which are developed during training sessions.

Strength

Strength meaning

Strength is the ability of the body to act against resistance.

Types of Strength

Strength can be classified as follows:

Dynamic Strength

Dynamic strength can be called isotonic strength because it is related to movements.In pullups and pushups, we require dynamic strength.In performing such workout,there is a diminishing tendency in dynamic strength and as a result,muscles refuse to work.At this juncture, a person is not able to do one extra pullup or pushup.

Types of Dynamic strength

Dynamic strength is classified into 3 parts:

1. Maximum Strength- it is the ability to act against maximum resistance.Maximum strength is not usually used in the majority of sports.It is used in those sports in which very heavy resistance has to be tackled, e.g.,Weightlifting,Shot-put,hammer throw etc.In other sports maximum strength is required for a short period, e.g., cross position in roman rings in gymnastics, starting and accelerating phase in sprinting events, high jump etc.In such sports maximum strength is really very important.


2. Explosive strength-It is defined as the ability to overcome resistance with high speed .In fact, it is a combination of strength and speed abilities.Explosive strength is generally used in sprint starts , weightlifting,shot put etc.In above-mentioned sports, this force is applied jus like an explosion, that's why it is called explosive power or explosive strength.


3. StrengthEndurance-As the name speaks, strength endurance is a mix of strength and endurance abilities.If strength means to overcome resistance and endurance it is the ability to resist fatigue, then strength endurance is the ability of a person to act against the condition of fatigue.It can be a form of static strength or dynamic strength depending on factor whether the movement is static or dynamic.Static Endurance ability is generally used in long distance races,swimming,road cycling and pole vault.So it can allude that strength endurance is used in most of the sports.

Static Strength

Static Strength is also called isometric strength.It is the ability of muscles to act against resistance.Static Strength can be measured by a dynamometer.This type of strength is not seen directly.Static strength id not appllied in sports directly but in weight lifting it is applied in phases.

Strength Training

Strength Training is the term of improving the strength.It is classified into following 4 types:

1. Isometric Exercises


2. Isotonic Exercises


3. Isokinetic Exercises

Isometric Exercises

Isometric exercise or isometrics are a type of strength training in which the muscle length do not change during contraction. Isometrics are done in  stable positions, rather than being dynamic through a range of motion.The main component of isometric exercises  is time , not weight.It involves trying to move a fixed object.It is used commonly for rehabilitation.(Tip: Iso-Metric-cannot be moved,even by single meter)

Isotonic Excercise

Isotonic exercises are those exercises in which movement can be seen directly.Isotonic Excercise tone up the muscles. Muscles become flexible, and length also increases. These exercises have great value in the field of sports and are considered best for  strength development. For e.g. running and jumping on the spot, weight training exercises, exercise with medicine ball etc.Isotonic Exercises can be performed with or without apparatus.

Isokinetic exercises

Isokinetic exercises are performed on specially designed machines. These exercises involve a special type of muscle contraction, which is usually not applicable in sports and games except rowing and swim. Isokinetic exercises ,movement occurs at the same speed. In isotonic  exercises muscle applies maximal force over a particular angle of its range of movements whereas in isokinetic exercises contraction of muscles applies maximal force throughout the complete range of movement.According to the individuals capacity, the speed of contraction can be adjusted accordingly. For eg. Lifting, pulling, gymnastics, diving etc.

Endurance

Endurance is the ability of the person to do sports movement with the desired quality and speed under the condition o fatigue.It involves a large number of muscles.In all sports , directly or indirectly endurance is used.It is usually measured by a number of repetitions.For eg. the number of situps a person can complete in one minute is often used to measure endurance of stomach muscles.

Types of endurance:

A.  According to the nature of the activity.

Basic Endurance

General Endurance

Specific Endurance

B. According to the duration of activity

Speed Endurance

Short-term endurance

Middle-term endurance

Long-term endurance

Types of endurance according to the nature of activity

According to the nature of activity, the endurance is classified into following types:

1. Basic Endurance- Also known as aerobic endurance,because basic endurance depends mainly on aerobic endurance.In fact, basic endurance is the ability to perform movements in which large number of body muscles are involved and the activity is performed at slow speed or pace for a long duration.(such as jogging,walking, swimming etc.) Basic endurance forms the basis of all types of endurance.


2. General Endurance- General endurance means doing sports activity in  the condition of fatigue.General endurance is not specific to any sports.It is developed through general exercises. The better the general endurance , better the performance in sports.


3. Specific Endurance- Specific endurance is the ability to resist the fatigue caused by a particular sports activity.As the nature of fatigue is different from sports to sports, the specific endurance is different from sports to sports.For example, the specific endurance for a wrestler is to combat effectively in three rounds or six minutes, whereas it is 4 rounds for a boxer.

Types of endurance according to the basis of duration of activity.

According to the duration of activity, the endurance is classified into following types:

1. Speed Endurance- Ability to resist fatigue in activities that last up to 45 seconds.For example.400m sprint.


2. Short-term endurance- Ability to resist fatigue in activities that start from 45 seconds and last up to 2minutes.For example.800m race.


3. Medium-term endurance- Ability to resist fatigue in activities that range from 2minutes to 11minutes.For example. 1500 m race.


4. Long-term endurance-  Ability to resist fatigue in activities that last more than 11 minutes.for example. 5000m cross country, 10,000m race, and marathon requires such type of endurance.

Improving/developing Endurance

The following methods are used to develop endurance:

1. Interval Training Method


2. ContinousTraining Method


3. Fartlek Training Method

Interval Training Method

Interval Training Method is the best method for improving endurance.In this method, exercise is done at high intensity and with intervals of incomplete recovery.

Let's check an example to understand better

• Firstly exercise should be done with high speed until heartbeat comes to 180 beats per minute.


• Rest should be taken until heartbeat comes to 120 or 130 beats per minute.


• Training load should be controlled by checking the  heart rate.

Advantages of interval training method

• It takes less time to do more workout.


• Highly beneficial for the respiratory and circulatory system.


• Progress can be measured easily.


• Peak performance can be achieved in short duration.


• Any fault can be cleared easily.

Disadvantages of interval training method

1. Increased chances of injuries.


2. Attracts heart diseases.


3. The top performance cannot remain active till the competition.

Continuous Method

Continuous training is one of the best methods for improving endurance.In this method of training, an exercise is performed for a long duration without any break.In this method intensity remains low because this exercise is done for a long time without a break.In this method intensity remains low because exercise is done for a long time.For Example Cross-Country race, etc. In this method, the rate of heartbeat remains between 140-160 beats per minute.The total duration of exercise should not be less than 30 minutes.

Advantages of continuous training method

1.  It increases glycogen in muscles and liver.


2.  It increases the number and size of mitochondria.


3.  It also increases the efficiency of heart and lungs.


4.  It improves willpower and makes the individual well-determined under the condition of fatigue.


5. For better results intensity can be increased.


6. It makes the individual self-disciplined and confident.

Fartlek Training Method

Fartlek training method is used for developing endurance . This trail method lays emphasis on both the aerobic and anaerobic systems. In this method pace or speed is not preplanned so it is left up to the individual. He can change according to the surroundings(hills, rivers forests, muddy roads metal roads and grounds) or himself.Self-Discipline plays a vital role in Fartlek training method.  The rate of heart beat ranges between 40 to 180 per minute. The duration of training depends on  the experience of the athlete but most probably it lasts a minimum of 45 minutes, It can vary from  aerobic walking to anaerobic sprinting. This training method is usually linked with running but can comprise any type of exercise. For performing this training proper warm up should be done at the beginning and appropriate cooling down at training to improve performance and to reduce the chances of injury. An example of this training is given below.

1. Warm up. Jogging or slow running for 5 to 10 minutes.


2. Steady, hard speed for 1.5 to 2.5 km.


3. Recovery, Rapid walking for at least 5 minutes.


4. Start of speed work:Easy running between sprints of about 50 to 60 meters repeated start of speed work Easy running between sprints of until a little tired.


5. Easy running with three or four quick and then.


6. Full steps now speed uphill for 175 to 200 metres.


7. The fast pace of 1 minute.

The above-mentioned routine is repeated until the total time prescribed on the training schedule has elapsed.

Advantages

1.  it keeps the heart rate up allowing an athlete to get good cardio-vascular endurance.


2.  It is good for aerobic and anaerobic fitness. That is why it makes an athlete a better runner and a better long distance runner.


3.  Due to the sprinting intervals, it makes the body versatile.


4.  It not rigid but flexible in nature.


5. A number of athletes can take part in this training simultaneously. 


6. In this training method, no equipment is required. Hence, it can be organised without any problem.


7.  It is easily adaptable to the athlete.

Disadvantages

1.  It is difficult to see how hard the trainee is making efforts.


2.  Sometimes the athlete is likely to drop efforts .


3. It may cause accidents because it is not  pre-planned.


4. Appropriate check on trainees can not be maintained .

Speed

Speed is the ability to move from one place to another in the shortest possible time.It means that the velocity with which an individual can execute his movements. In other words, it means the capacity of moving a body part or the whole body ample, the movement with maximum speed or velocity.For example, the movement of smasher's arm in volleyball has the maximum speed or velocity at the time of smashing the volleyball.

Types of Speed in different sports

The main forms in which Speed appears in different f appears are stated below

• Reaction Ability- Reaction Ability depends completely on coordinative processes.So it is also considered as a coordinative ability.Reaction Ability is the   ability to react effectively and quickly to any signal or action. In games and sports, signals can be of various types such as visual or tactile.In games and sports , reaction ability is not only significant to react quickly to a signal but the reaction should also be accurate according to the situation.Reaction ability can beClassified into two types: (a) Simple Reaction Ability- It is the ability  to react quickly in already determined a manner to a known signal. For example, the reaction of sprint races is already known to the racer.
  (b) Complex Reaction Ability- it is the ability to react quickly to undermined or unexpected signals, These are unexpected to read person because he does not know when and to which signals has to react such as facing a ball cricket by a batsman station.


• Acceleration Ability-It is the ability to achieve maximum speed from a stable position or from the low-speed state. Generally, runners achieve their maximum after approximately six seconds. This ability mainly depends on upon explosive strength,  technique, and flexibility. This ability is important in all games and sports in which maximum speeds are to be achieved in quickly such as sprint races(short distance), hockey, football, and gymnastics etc.


• Movement speed- It is the ability to do a movement in minimum time.It depends on upon technique, explosive strength, flexibility and coordinative in swimming and vital role in boxing, wrestling, throws, jumps, gymnastics turns in swimming and in the movement sprinting starts. It can be measured by the time taken to complete the movement.


• Locomotor Ability- It is the ability to maintain maximum speed for maximum time or distance . This ability is very significant in only a few sports events such as 100m distance, 200m, 400m races, short sprints in track cycling, speed skating, swimming, football etc 


• Speed Endurance-Speed endurance is the ability to perform movements speed under conditions of fatigue, Speed endurance is a very complicated ability which depends on upon explosive strength, speed, and endurance. It also depends on upon technique, local muscular endurance and lactic acid tolerance ability.

Methods to develop speed

In developing speed genetic factors may work sometimes but most of the share is occupied by the amount of hard work done by an athlete.Following are the ways to develop speed:

1. Acceleration Runs

The acceleration run is introduced to develop speed , especially in attaining maximum speed from a stable position.Before starting acceleration run , the proper technique should be learnt properly to reduce the chances of injuries.In acceleration run, an athlete is required to run a specific distance in minimum possible time.This is to be repeated again and again in the presence of proper rest intervals between the runs.the maximum speed of runners is achieved within 6 seconds.After developing speed , good athletes can maintain speed for only 20 metres.

2. Pace Runs or Races

Pace runs or races include running the whole distance of the race at a constant speed.Generally, the chosen distance is 800 metres.Observations showed that an  athlete can run  up to 300metres for full speed so he requires conserving speed to cover the whole distance of 800 metres.For example,  if the best record of an athlete of running 800 metres is 1 minute 40 seconds ,then he should focus on covering first 400 metres for 50 seconds then another 400 metres for 50 seconds. This would help him decreasing  time and increases speed.For pace run , the athlete should run for maximum steady speed for 110%-120% of the distance .Proper tests should be taken before starting next repetition.In other words, this race includes keeping the sufficient energy for the second half of the race and not spending over the first half.

Flexibility

Flexibility is the range of movements of a joint.In ordinary words, it is the ability of the body to bend , twist etc.Flexibility helps to do day to day activities efficiently.It is determined by genetic factors and the amount of workout one do.Developing the flexibility helps to reduce injuries, develops postures, reduce low back pains etc.

Flexibility can be classified into two types:

• Active Flexibility


• Passive Flexibility

Active Flexibility 

The  flexibility movements performed without any outside help goes under this category.This is the easiest type of flexibility and can be seen in real life in the form of hamstring stretch,butterfly groin stretch ,shoulder stretch, triceps stretch,calf stretch etc.Active Flexibility is also into two types:

• Static Flexibility - Performing an exercise  to increase the flexibility comes under the category of static flexibility.For example shoulder stretch, triceps stretch,calf stretch etc.Static flexibility is the flexibility possessed by a person in a stable position.


• Dynamic Flexibility-The flexibility possessed by a moving body is dynamic flexibility.This is an essential part of some games or sports.For example gymnastics.

Passive Flexibility

The flexibility movements performed with the use of external help is passive flexibility.for example stretching exercises with the help of a partner.

Improving Flexibility

 Coordinative Abilities

The name coordinative abilities say it all.Coordination abilities refer to the ability of an individual to maintain the coordination between different body parts.The coordination can be in the form of muscle to muscle , brain to muscle etc.

Types of coordinative abilities

There are different types of coordinative abilities which are significant in different sports.The various types of coordinative abilities are:

Orientation Ability-The coordinative ability of an individual to determine body position and its parts to react upon a moving body.It depends on sensory organs.Its application can be seen in games such as basketball, football, volleyball, table tennis etc in which the balls are moving bodies.

Coupling Abilities-The coordinative ability of individual to use different body parts to react in sports or games is known as coupling abilities.It  can be seen in boxing , wrestling etc.

Reaction Ability-The coordinative ability of individual to react quickly to a signal. The signal can be in the form of light , sound etc.Reaction ability is further described into simple reaction ability and complex reaction ability.

• Simple reaction ability-The ability to react according to a previously known signal in a defined way is known as simple reaction ability.For example reaction of a runner in a race .


• Complex reaction ability-The ability of a person to react quickly to an unknown signal .Both reaction and signal are not defined.For example ball in football, ball in basketball, ball in cricket etc.

Balance Ability-The ability of individual to maintain or regain balance quickly in the body during and/or after the movement is known as balance ability.For example handstand on parallel bars, water skiing, performing on the balance beam.

Rythm Ability- Rhythm ability is the ability to observe or perceive of a movement and to do the movement with the required rhythm. In gymnastics or figure skating,  the sportsman has to observe an external rhythm,  given in the form of music and to express his movements. Rhythm ability is also required in synchronised swimming.In various sports, it is not given from outside,  The sportsperson uses the rhythm which is already stored in his motor memory. This type of ability is very significant in gymnastics,  synchronised swimming,  diving and figure skating etc.

 Adaptation Ability- Adaptation ability is the ability to adjust or change effectively on the basis of changes or anticipated changes in the situation The change situation can be expected one or can be sudden or unexpected one in other words,  it can be said that it is the ability to solve motor task,  effectively in spite of changed or changing situation.

Differentiation Ability- Differentiation ability the ability to achieve a high degree accuracy and economy of separate body movements and movement phases in a motor action.  The high level of this ability depends on movement experience and the degree of mastery over motor action.

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Planning in Sports

1 Planning 

A basic management function involving the making of one or more  plans to achieve  needs or demands with the available resources.
In simple words it means deciding in advance what is to be done, when is to be done,how it is to be done and by whom it is to be done. ("it" refers to the task or goal or target or demand or need)

1.1 Objectives of planning

1. To reduce unnecessary pressure of immediacy.

2. To keep good control over all the activities.

3. To facilitate proper coordination.

4. To reduce the chances of mistakes.

5. To increase the efficiency.

6. To increase the creativity.

7. To enhance the performance.

2 Tournament

A series of contests between a number of competitors, competing for a prize.In other words it means competition between many teams.It is classified into 4 types:

1. Knock-Out Tournament


2. League (or Round Robin)


3. Combination (Include all Combinations of above two Tournaments)


4. Challenge Tournament (Out Of Syllabus)

Lets Know About Them

2.1 Knock-Out Tournament

This is the most common type of tournament in which teams play against each other, winner moves to next round whereas loser is eliminated from the tournament.Knock-out tournaments are best tournament when spectators or resources are less.

In Knock-out tournament,teams are made to compete with each other unless a single winner is decided.

2.1.1 Advantages

• Cheap to organise-As we know that number of teams keeps on decreasing  with the increase in rounds,so these tournaments are cheaper or economical to organise.


• Raising standards-Knockout tournament works on the principle of either win or gets eliminated and  there is no second chance to  any team. So teams tend to give their best to win the tournament.


• Time saving-Due to less number of matches , knockout tournament require less time to complete.


• Less officials-Owing to less number of matches , the officials required for the matches will also be less.

2.1.2 Disadvantages

• Good teams may be eliminated at beginning-It could be possible that due to some reasons good teams also get eliminated in an earlier round.


• Lose of interest-Due to the elimination of good teams in initial rounds,spectators tend to lose interest in remaining rounds.

3 League tournament

Also Known As Round Robin Tournament.In this type of tournament All teams are made to compete with each other  for once (if it is single league tournament) or twice (if it is double league tournament).This tournament is often seen as producing the most reliable rankings. However, for large numbers of competitors it may require an unfeasible large number of rounds.

3.1 Types of league tournament

3.1.1 Single League tournament - League Tournament in which each team plays with all other teams for once are known as single league tournament

Number of rounds in single league tournament can be calculated by following formula

N(N-1)/2  where N represents number of teams

3.1.2 Double League Tournament- League Tournament in which each team plays with all other teams twice are known as double league tournament

Number of  rounds in double league tournament can be calculated by following formula

N(N-1)    where N represents number of teams.

4 Combination Tournaments

In combination tournaments , the number of teams are divided into four equal zones. all of them are made to compete accordingly  (depends on type of combination).After the competition winner from each zone is picked up and made to compete with other winners of different zones.

Types of combination tournament :
Combination tournaments are classified into following four types:

1. Knockout Cum Knockout


2. League Cum League


3. Knockout Cum League


4. League Cum Knockout

4.1 Knock-Out Cum Knockout

In Knock-Out Cum Knockout tournaments number of teams are divided into four groups which are later on made to compete with each other on knockout basis.Since this is knockout cum knockout tournament , the winners of the previous four groups are made to compete with each other on knock out basis . This will declare one team as a winner .

4.2 League Cum League

In League Cum League tournaments number of teams are divided into four groups which are later on made to compete with each other on league basis.Being a league cum league , all the winners of four teams are made to compete on league basis.This will declare one team as a winner .

4.3 Knockout Cum League

In Knockout cum league tournaments , divide number of teams into four groups,then they are made to compete with each other on the basis of knockout tournament , the winners from the four groups are made to  compete on the basis of league tournament This will declare one team as a winner ..

4.4 League Cum Knockout

In League Cum Knockout ,Divide number of teams into four groups,then they are made to compete with each other on the basis of League tournament,the winners form the four groups are made to  compete on the basis of the knockout tournament.This will declare one team as a winner .

5 Fixtures

Setting up fixtures means ,making arrangements of competition among teams. it includes deciding who will fight with whom,which teams will be competing in the first round and other rounds .It is primarily drawn for Knockout tournament,and league tournament(staircase method and cyclic method).

5.1 knockout tournament fixture

Seeding-The sorting of teams and fitting them in the fixture so that the stronger teams do not meet each other in the early rounds is known as seeding. The criteria for sorting the teams is their performance.The reason why seeding is used in tournaments is that if stronger teams lose the matches in initial rounds ,then there would be no interest left in the matches for spectators and since spectators are the main source of funding ,seeding is done.

A bye is a special privilege given to a team in the initial rounds because of which it gets exempted from playing in the first round and directly enters the second round. In knock-out (single-elimination) tournaments, if the number of participants is not a power of two (e.g. 16 or 32), byes are given to complete the fixture which automatically moves certain participants into a later round without requiring them to compete in an earlier one.

Byes to be given are calculated by subtracting the number of teams and a power of two (same or greater than a number of teams).Let's see some examples to understand it better.

Number of teams are 2 then byes will be

Power of two greater than number of teams-Number of teams  = number of byes

2-2 = 0

Number of teams are 3 then byes will be

Power of two greater than number of teams-Number of teams  = number of byes

4 - 3 = 1

Number of teams are 12 then byes will be

Power of two greater than number of teams-Number of teams  = number of byes

16-12=4 byes

After calculating a number of byes,we will see how to make a knockout fixture.

1. Entering teams before doing anything- all the teams are arranged in a serial wise manner starting from lowest to highest.


2. Dividing -the number of teams is divided into two zones.If the number of teams is in an even number , then they are to be divided equally, otherwise, they are calculated by the following formula.

For the upper half    (N+1)/2

For the lower half    (N-1)/2

N represents number of teams

In case when there are odd number of teams , upper half gets an advantage of one more team.

3.  Calculation of byes- it will be calculated on the process stated above.

4.Fixing the byes-The number of byes are fixed or allotted (to respective teams)  in a pre-defined pattern.

Let's say a number of teams are 12 and the accordingly number of byes are 16-12=4.then these byes will be allotted in the following manner.

• First Bye will be given to the last team of the second half zone or the end of the whole fixture.


• The second bye is given to the first team of the first half or the first team of the whole fixture.


• The third bye is given to the first team of the lower half zone.&


• The fourth bye is given to the last team of the upper half.

If u do it correctly it will end up something like this

As byes are given to some teams , they are made to compete in the second round and they don't have to do anything in the first round.

After this the remaining teams are made to compete with each other.

5. competition - After allotting byes , the remaining teams will compete to get a chance in the second round.A square brackets type pattern is made which helps the viewer to see the competition among teams , outside the pattern made , it is written that which team won, and it goes on until a one winner is left.It looks like this

Note: the numbers outside the square like patterns represent the winner teams , and they can differ . There is no predefined pattern or theory which can tell you its pattern because it is always dependent upon the hard work of teams , it is always random.

5.2 League Tournament Fixtures

The following methods are used for drawing fixtures in league tournaments:

1. Cyclic Method


2. Staircase Method


3. Tabular Method(Out of Syllabus As per mycbseguide.com)

5.2.1 Cyclic Method league tournament fixture

In Cyclic Method league tournament  one team will be fixed in a particular position and all other teams will move in a particular direction.

If a number of teams are odd , then one bye will be kept in the match and its place will be fixed in the first position of the right side of the fixture.A number of matches played will be equal to the number of teams.This is so because the bye is also counted as a team .

Number of matches = Number of teams (Only When number of teams are odd)

If the number of teams is even , then team number 1 will be fixed in the first position ,right side and all other teams will go on changing their places.

Number of matches = Number of teams - 1(only when number of teams are even)

Let's see some examples:

When number of teams are 5

After the 5th round, it stopped because in next round team 1 will replace the team 2 in the 5th round and this will look same as round 1.

When number of teams are 6

5.2.3 Staircase Method of league tournament fixture

In Staircase Method of league tournament  ,fixtures are made just like a staircase.this method is the easiest method because no bye is given to any team and there is no problem of the even number of teams or odd number of teams.

It includes fixing matches of one team with all other teams and the winner is decided on the basis of points .

6 Intramural and Extramural

Intramural Sports are those recreational sports which are played within a particular  school/college/institute.These sports are meant to motivate the students and developing their various skills such as leadership,coordination etc.It is the one of the best ways to motivate the students of institution who are interested in games and sports.

6.1.1 Objectives of intramural

1. To provide recreation.


2. To develop cooperation among children.


3. To provide opportunity to children to do participate in sports.


4. To find out the talented sports person.


5. Develop leadership.


6. Development of personality.


7. Enables students to learn sports skills.

6.1.2 Advantages/Significance of intramural

1. These activities are necessary to low down the fighting instinct of students.


2. Intramural activities refresh the children and make them agile.


3. These are helpful in physical ,mental,social,emotional developement of children.


4. It lays stress on moral and ethical values of students.


5. Provide a good source for recreation.


6. Develops awareness for health among children.


7. Provides good opportunities to students to participate in-game sand sports.


8. help to develop leadership qualities in students.


9. Talent search is possible through intramural.


10. It serves as a a great source to develop interpersonal relations.


11. Helpful in developing personality.

6.2 Extramural Sports are those recreational sports which ar played between different players/teams of different school/institution or an organisation.

6.2.1 Significance of extramural sports

1. These competitions provide an opportunity to schools and teams to show their sports capabilities which enhance the image of school.


2. These programs are essential for making and implementing the program of physical education more efficiently and effectively.


3. it provides opportunity to take part in competition for other  students also  who are not a part of organisation or school.


4. these activities are essential to provide appropriate knowledge of nw techniques of sports.


5. standard of sports can be enhanced by such activities.

6.2.2 Objectives of extramural 

1. To provide experience of sports competition to students.


2. To check improvement in performance.


3. Psychological development.


4. To have sense of competition.

7 Specific Sports Programs

Specific sports programs are arranged recently to draw public attention on social issues.These events are arranged with specific objective by federation state government,NGO etc, to keep awareness among people about their health.Sometimes arrangement of these sports leads to very specific causes like AIDS,saving tigers,swine flu,cancer awareness etc.

7.1 Sports day

Sports day is a day which is meant to organise various competition among various houses(see house system).The sole reason for conducting sports day is to develop awareness among children about health.Sports days is a chain of sports games that are playing between various teams or houses.The duration of such games is only one day.These games are proved beneficial in reducing stress,tension,depression etc.The skills developed  through programs are honesty,leadership,brotherhood,coordination etc.

7.2 Health Run

These runs are introduced to increase awareness among people about health.There is no participation restrictions , no competition and a fixed distance to run.Also , prior registrations are required.The common types of health runs are marathons.

7.3 Run for fun

These runs are introduced to aware people about health and fitness.It motivates people to stay healthy and staying fit.Enjoyment in such runs is always available in abundance.

7.4 Run for specific cause

These runs are organised for noble causes such as increasing awareness about various diseases like aids or cancer or sometimes health also.It also includes raising funds.These are generally organised by NGOs.

7.5 Run for unity

These runs are organised for specific purposes with specific purpose of bringing peace,unity and solidarity among people of country or world.These runs are organised to include people of all religions to remove social and economical barriers so that all can come together and run for the solidarity of nation. the main aim of these runs is to develop brotherhood , unity among people.These runs sometimes are conducted to raise funds for charitable trust organisations.

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